Investigative report
Raqqa: The Kurds Who Are Not Seen
Field Investigation into an Identity Between Transformations, Silence, and Fear
Field Investigation into an Identity Between Transformations, Silence, and Fear
Investigation prepared by: Baran Jamo / From inside Raqqa: Baran – Haitham
General supervision: Ibrahim M. Kaban
General supervision: Ibrahim M. Kaban
Investigation Introduction
Raqqa is widely regarded as one of the most complex Syrian cities in terms of its social and political transformations over the past fifteen years. This complexity does not stem solely from the repeated shifts in controlling authorities, but from the near-total restructuring of its security, demographic, and social fabric across successive turning points.
Before 2011, the city operated under a rigidly centralized system in which security agencies played a decisive role in managing public space. Social relations were largely shaped by traditional tribal and local structures, while political space remained tightly restricted. Public expression—whether political or identity-based—was subject to strict surveillance. Within this environment, all communities, including the Kurds, existed in a condition of what could be described as “non-visible presence” or “politically limited existence,” without this implying demographic or social absence.
With the outbreak of the Syrian crisis in 2011, Raqqa entered a rapid and unstable transitional phase. The gradual weakening of central state authority created administrative and security vacuums that were quickly filled by diverse local actors. This phase was not a simple transition from one system to another, but the beginning of a structural disintegration of traditional authority and the emergence of new forms of control based on armed power and shifting local allegiances.
Later, with the rise of armed factions and subsequently the Islamic State’s control of the city in 2014, Raqqa entered one of its most violent and transformative periods. The public sphere was radically reshaped, affecting population distribution, daily life, and social relations. During this phase, the city experienced extensive demographic depletion, including forced displacement and internal and external migration. These processes affected all components of society, including the Kurds, within a broader context of violence and rigid ideological governance.
After 2017, following the end of the Islamic State’s control and the entry of قوات سوريا الديمقراطية into the city, a new phase of administrative and security restructuring began. Efforts were made to rebuild local institutions and establish new forms of civil governance. However, despite the fundamental differences from the previous phase, this period did not fully resolve the accumulated effects of earlier transformations. Raqqa remains a city still redefining itself within an unstable political and security context.
Within this layered historical trajectory, the question of the Kurdish presence in Raqqa emerges not as an isolated issue, but as part of these broader transformations. The Kurds in the city have not existed outside this process; rather, they have been directly affected by each of its stages—through shifting patterns of stability, security transformations, and changing social relations across the city and its countryside.
While narratives differ regarding the nature of this presence today—ranging from those who view it as a continuation of historical coexistence to those who see it as deeply affected by security and political transformations—the one consistent fact is that Raqqa itself has not yet stabilized into a final form of its social or political identity. Every component of its population, including the Kurds, continues to exist within this evolving and unsettled framework.
This investigation is based on this background to understand the Kurdish experience in Raqqa not as an isolated file, but as part of a city whose social and political identity has been repeatedly reshaped over fifteen years and remains in a process of ongoing redefinition.
Raqqa is widely regarded as one of the most complex Syrian cities in terms of its social and political transformations over the past fifteen years. This complexity does not stem solely from the repeated shifts in controlling authorities, but from the near-total restructuring of its security, demographic, and social fabric across successive turning points.
Before 2011, the city operated under a rigidly centralized system in which security agencies played a decisive role in managing public space. Social relations were largely shaped by traditional tribal and local structures, while political space remained tightly restricted. Public expression—whether political or identity-based—was subject to strict surveillance. Within this environment, all communities, including the Kurds, existed in a condition of what could be described as “non-visible presence” or “politically limited existence,” without this implying demographic or social absence.
With the outbreak of the Syrian crisis in 2011, Raqqa entered a rapid and unstable transitional phase. The gradual weakening of central state authority created administrative and security vacuums that were quickly filled by diverse local actors. This phase was not a simple transition from one system to another, but the beginning of a structural disintegration of traditional authority and the emergence of new forms of control based on armed power and shifting local allegiances.
Later, with the rise of armed factions and subsequently the Islamic State’s control of the city in 2014, Raqqa entered one of its most violent and transformative periods. The public sphere was radically reshaped, affecting population distribution, daily life, and social relations. During this phase, the city experienced extensive demographic depletion, including forced displacement and internal and external migration. These processes affected all components of society, including the Kurds, within a broader context of violence and rigid ideological governance.
After 2017, following the end of the Islamic State’s control and the entry of قوات سوريا الديمقراطية into the city, a new phase of administrative and security restructuring began. Efforts were made to rebuild local institutions and establish new forms of civil governance. However, despite the fundamental differences from the previous phase, this period did not fully resolve the accumulated effects of earlier transformations. Raqqa remains a city still redefining itself within an unstable political and security context.
Within this layered historical trajectory, the question of the Kurdish presence in Raqqa emerges not as an isolated issue, but as part of these broader transformations. The Kurds in the city have not existed outside this process; rather, they have been directly affected by each of its stages—through shifting patterns of stability, security transformations, and changing social relations across the city and its countryside.
While narratives differ regarding the nature of this presence today—ranging from those who view it as a continuation of historical coexistence to those who see it as deeply affected by security and political transformations—the one consistent fact is that Raqqa itself has not yet stabilized into a final form of its social or political identity. Every component of its population, including the Kurds, continues to exist within this evolving and unsettled framework.
This investigation is based on this background to understand the Kurdish experience in Raqqa not as an isolated file, but as part of a city whose social and political identity has been repeatedly reshaped over fifteen years and remains in a process of ongoing redefinition.
Daily Fear and Declining Presence
Some testimonies describe noticeable changes in the daily life of Kurds inside the city, particularly in terms of movement and social interaction, where identity has increasingly become associated with caution and self-restraint.
Junaid says: “Our suffering is great. We even fear having our phones searched, which has happened several times at checkpoints run by armed tribal groups. The number of Kurdish youth in the city has significantly decreased due to fear of arrest, and many have left the area. There is a daily atmosphere of terror imposed on Kurdish civilians.”
Some testimonies describe noticeable changes in the daily life of Kurds inside the city, particularly in terms of movement and social interaction, where identity has increasingly become associated with caution and self-restraint.
Junaid says: “Our suffering is great. We even fear having our phones searched, which has happened several times at checkpoints run by armed tribal groups. The number of Kurdish youth in the city has significantly decreased due to fear of arrest, and many have left the area. There is a daily atmosphere of terror imposed on Kurdish civilians.”
Land, Property, and Social Transformation
According to other testimonies, tensions are not limited to security concerns but extend into economic and social structures, particularly regarding property and local commerce.
Haval says: “After armed tribal groups took control of Raqqa, they moved to seize Kurdish lands and shops under the pretext that they were informal settlements. The most affected are the Kurds in the city.”
According to other testimonies, tensions are not limited to security concerns but extend into economic and social structures, particularly regarding property and local commerce.
Haval says: “After armed tribal groups took control of Raqqa, they moved to seize Kurdish lands and shops under the pretext that they were informal settlements. The most affected are the Kurds in the city.”
Displacement Across Years of Conflict
Some residents indicate that Kurdish hardship in Raqqa is not linked to a single phase but to a continuous series of transformations beginning in 2011 and extending through different stages of the conflict.
Jamal says: “The suffering of Kurds in the city is enormous, between continuous displacement due to threats received since 2011 until today, especially after the so-called tribal armed groups took control, which do not even respect state decisions.”
Some residents indicate that Kurdish hardship in Raqqa is not linked to a single phase but to a continuous series of transformations beginning in 2011 and extending through different stages of the conflict.
Jamal says: “The suffering of Kurds in the city is enormous, between continuous displacement due to threats received since 2011 until today, especially after the so-called tribal armed groups took control, which do not even respect state decisions.”
The Pre-War Period
In contrast, some testimonies offer a different reading of the pre-war period, where state control was restrictive but of a different nature.
Kamal says: “Before the Syrian crisis, Kurds were relatively stable in the city, despite security surveillance by state intelligence branches targeting Kurdish activists. However, the former regime did not forcibly displace Kurds; it rather limited their political role.”
In contrast, some testimonies offer a different reading of the pre-war period, where state control was restrictive but of a different nature.
Kamal says: “Before the Syrian crisis, Kurds were relatively stable in the city, despite security surveillance by state intelligence branches targeting Kurdish activists. However, the former regime did not forcibly displace Kurds; it rather limited their political role.”
The Impact of the Islamic State Era
Raqqa is locally remembered as having undergone a critical rupture during the Islamic State’s control, which marked a sharp turning point in population movement and displacement.
Mamo says: “ISIS carried out large-scale displacement of Kurds. Many families left Raqqa due to threats from extremist elements. Today, similar practices are being carried out against civilians.”
Raqqa is locally remembered as having undergone a critical rupture during the Islamic State’s control, which marked a sharp turning point in population movement and displacement.
Mamo says: “ISIS carried out large-scale displacement of Kurds. Many families left Raqqa due to threats from extremist elements. Today, similar practices are being carried out against civilians.”
Unstable Return and Reproduced Tensions
After the end of ISIS control, some residents returned to the city, yet testimonies suggest that stability was not fully restored, and certain patterns of tension re-emerged in different forms.
Reber says: “I was arrested several times under the former regime. During ISIS control I was forced to flee to Kobani. I returned after the liberation of the city, but after the withdrawal of SDF the same mentality that existed before returned.”
After the end of ISIS control, some residents returned to the city, yet testimonies suggest that stability was not fully restored, and certain patterns of tension re-emerged in different forms.
Reber says: “I was arrested several times under the former regime. During ISIS control I was forced to flee to Kobani. I returned after the liberation of the city, but after the withdrawal of SDF the same mentality that existed before returned.”
Ongoing Insecurity in Daily Life
Other testimonies highlight a continuing sense of insecurity in everyday life, both in public spaces and local institutions.
Mukhtar says: “Despite all the changes in Raqqa—from the former regime to ISIS, and now to tribal groups loosely linked to Damascus—the situation of Kurds remains the same. We still face constant threats in markets, streets, and schools.”
Other testimonies highlight a continuing sense of insecurity in everyday life, both in public spaces and local institutions.
Mukhtar says: “Despite all the changes in Raqqa—from the former regime to ISIS, and now to tribal groups loosely linked to Damascus—the situation of Kurds remains the same. We still face constant threats in markets, streets, and schools.”
Arrests and Uncertain Futures
In some cases, fear is not only general but rooted in direct personal experiences of arrest and uncertainty regarding detainees.
Jomo says: “My brother has been arrested several times within a single month, and we still do not know his fate. We try to leave the city, but we fear having no alternative shelter, as we have been residents of Raqqa since the 1960s.”
In some cases, fear is not only general but rooted in direct personal experiences of arrest and uncertainty regarding detainees.
Jomo says: “My brother has been arrested several times within a single month, and we still do not know his fate. We try to leave the city, but we fear having no alternative shelter, as we have been residents of Raqqa since the 1960s.”
Investigative Conclusion
The testimonies presented in this investigation reveal that Raqqa is not merely a city that has experienced successive changes in ruling powers during years of war. Rather, it is a complex social space that has repeatedly reconstituted itself under pressure from shifting political realities—from centralized state control to armed factions, then the Islamic State, and finally the current phase involving the presence of قوات سوريا الديمقراطية and ongoing local restructuring.
Within this context, the Kurdish reality in Raqqa cannot be read as a fixed condition or reduced to simplistic labels such as “integration” or “marginalization.” Instead, it appears as a fluid condition shaped by power balances, territorial control, and varying levels of security stability across different phases. The picture emerging from the testimonies oscillates between fear, daily coexistence, and a long memory of repeated transformations that have prevented the emergence of a stable social order.
These accounts also suggest that the Kurdish question in Raqqa cannot be separated from the broader structure of the city itself, where local, tribal, and political identities intersect within a complex web of relationships that blur the boundaries between social, security, and political factors. The issue, therefore, is not about a single group, but about an entire system of relations reshaped fundamentally by war.
Moreover, the divergence in narratives demonstrates that there is no single dominant story within the city regarding the current phase. Some accounts emphasize ongoing pressure and insecurity, while others interpret the situation as a continuation of post-2011 transformations. Between these perspectives lies a grey zone that is difficult to define, yet reflects an unstable socio-political reality.
In this sense, Raqqa becomes a microcosm of a broader Syrian dilemma: how to rebuild the relationship between state and society after years of conflict, and how local identities—including Kurdish identity—can redefine their position within a political space that has not yet stabilized. The issue is not merely one of presence or absence, but of the conditions of that presence, the limits of its expression, and the possibility of transforming it from a silent or tense condition into a stable and recognized social existence.
Ultimately, this investigation does not aim to provide final answers, but rather to open questions about the future of balances in Raqqa: whether the city is moving toward gradual social reintegration beyond the legacy of war, or whether current accumulations of tension will keep latent divisions beneath the surface, ready to resurface with any new political shift.
In all cases, Raqqa remains a city whose social and political file is still open—still in the process of formation, where memory and the present intersect, and where the future remains open to multiple, unresolved possibilities.
The testimonies presented in this investigation reveal that Raqqa is not merely a city that has experienced successive changes in ruling powers during years of war. Rather, it is a complex social space that has repeatedly reconstituted itself under pressure from shifting political realities—from centralized state control to armed factions, then the Islamic State, and finally the current phase involving the presence of قوات سوريا الديمقراطية and ongoing local restructuring.
Within this context, the Kurdish reality in Raqqa cannot be read as a fixed condition or reduced to simplistic labels such as “integration” or “marginalization.” Instead, it appears as a fluid condition shaped by power balances, territorial control, and varying levels of security stability across different phases. The picture emerging from the testimonies oscillates between fear, daily coexistence, and a long memory of repeated transformations that have prevented the emergence of a stable social order.
These accounts also suggest that the Kurdish question in Raqqa cannot be separated from the broader structure of the city itself, where local, tribal, and political identities intersect within a complex web of relationships that blur the boundaries between social, security, and political factors. The issue, therefore, is not about a single group, but about an entire system of relations reshaped fundamentally by war.
Moreover, the divergence in narratives demonstrates that there is no single dominant story within the city regarding the current phase. Some accounts emphasize ongoing pressure and insecurity, while others interpret the situation as a continuation of post-2011 transformations. Between these perspectives lies a grey zone that is difficult to define, yet reflects an unstable socio-political reality.
In this sense, Raqqa becomes a microcosm of a broader Syrian dilemma: how to rebuild the relationship between state and society after years of conflict, and how local identities—including Kurdish identity—can redefine their position within a political space that has not yet stabilized. The issue is not merely one of presence or absence, but of the conditions of that presence, the limits of its expression, and the possibility of transforming it from a silent or tense condition into a stable and recognized social existence.
Ultimately, this investigation does not aim to provide final answers, but rather to open questions about the future of balances in Raqqa: whether the city is moving toward gradual social reintegration beyond the legacy of war, or whether current accumulations of tension will keep latent divisions beneath the surface, ready to resurface with any new political shift.
In all cases, Raqqa remains a city whose social and political file is still open—still in the process of formation, where memory and the present intersect, and where the future remains open to multiple, unresolved possibilities.
Editorial Note
All names have been changed to protect the safety of sources.
All names have been changed to protect the safety of sources.
